Epirus

Modern Greek ÍPIROS, coastal region of northwestern Greece and southern Albania. It extends from Valona Bay (Gji i Vlorës) in Albania (northwest) to the Gulf of Arta (southeast); its hinterland extends eastward to the watershed of the Pindus Mountains. The nomoi (departments) of Árta, Ioánnina, Préveza, and Thesprotía make up the Greek part of Epirus. The Pindus Mountains separate Epirus from the Greek regions of Macedonia and Thessaly to the east. The principal town in Greek Epirus is Ioánnina, and the largest settlement in Albanian Epirus is Gjirokastër.

Epirus is largely made up of great limestone ridges oriented northwest-southeast and north-south; they reach up to 8,600 feet (2,600 m) in height and fall off more steeply to the west. These ridges generally parallel the coast and are so steep that the valley land between them is mostly suitable only for pasture, though northern Epirus has more plains and cereal production. Much of Epirus lies on the windward side of the Pindus Mountains and hence receives the prevailing winds off the Ionian Sea, with the result that it receives more rainfall than does any other region of mainland Greece.

Poor-quality soils, faulty farming practices, and fragmented landholdings have kept the region’s agricultural productivity low. Sheep and goats are raised, and corn (maize) is the chief crop. Olives and oranges are also cultivated, and tobacco is grown around Ioánnina. There is also some dairying and fishing. Wheat and vegetables must be imported.

Epirus has few resources and industries, and its population has been depleted by emigration. The population is concentrated in the area around Ioánnina, which has the largest number of manufacturing establishments.

In the Neolithic period Epirus was populated by seafarers along the coast and by shepherds and hunters from the southwestern Balkans who brought with them the Greek language. These people buried their leaders in large mounds containing shaft graves. Similar burial chambers were subsequently used by the Mycenean civilization, suggesting that the founders of Mycenae may have come from Epirus and central Albania. Epirus itself remained culturally backward during this time, but Mycenean remains have been found at two religious shrines of great antiquity in the region: the Oracle of the Dead on the Acheron River, familiar to the heroes of Homer’s Odyssey, and the Oracle of Zeus at Dodona, to whom Achilles prayed in the Iliad.

After the Mycenaean civilization declined, Epirus was the launching area of the Dorian invasions (1100-1000 BC) of Greece. The region’s original inhabitants were driven southward by the Dorians, and out of the ensuing migrations three main clusters of Greek-speaking tribes emerged in Epirus: the Thesproti of southwestern Epirus, the Molossi of central Epirus, and the Chaones of northwestern Epirus. They lived in clusters of small villages, in contrast to most other Greeks, who lived in or around city-states.

In the 5th century Epirus was still on the periphery of the Greek world. To the 5th-century historian Thucydides, the Epirotes were “barbarians.” The only Epirotes regarded as Greek were the Aeacidae, who were members of the Molossian royal house and claimed descent from Achilles. From about 370 BC on, the Aeacidae were able to expand the Molossian state by incorporating tribes from the rival groups in Epirus. The Aeacidae’s efforts gained impetus from the marriage of Philip II of Macedon to their princess, Olympias. In 334, while Alexander the Great, son of Philip and Olympias, crossed into Asia, his uncle, the Molossian ruler Alexander, attacked southern Italy, where he was eventually checked by Rome and killed in battle in about 331. Upon Alexander the Molossian’s death, the Epirote tribes formed a coalition on an equal basis but with the Molossian king in command of their military forces. The greatest Molossian king of this coalition was Pyrrhus (319-272); he and his son Alexander II ruled as far south as Acarnania and to central Albania in the north. Pyrrhus’ military adventures overstrained his state’s military resources, but they also brought great prosperity to Epirus. He built a magnificent stone theatre at Dodona and a new suburb at Ambracia (now Árta), which he made his capital.

After the Aeacid monarchy ended in 232, the Epirote alliance was transformed from a coalition of tribes into a federal state, the Epirote League, with a parliament (synedrion). The league steered an uneasy course during the conflicts between Rome and Macedonia, and in 170 BC, during the Third Macedonian War (171-168), the league split apart, the Molossians supporting Macedonia, the Chaones and Thesproti siding with Rome. Molossia was taken in 167 by victorious Rome, and 150,000 of its inhabitants were enslaved.

Central Epirus did not recover until the Byzantine period, but the coastal areas continued to prosper as part of a Roman province. When the Roman Empire split in AD 395, Epirus was the westernmost province of the Eastern Empire. When the Byzantine Empire became fragmented, an independent kingdom was maintained in Epirus (see Epirus, Despotate of) after 1204 AD, but in 1318 Serbs and Albanians overran the area, and in 1430 the Ottoman Turks annexed it. Under Turkish rule, the region suffered from overcultivation and deforestation that caused soil erosion and depopulation. In the 18th century Turkish sovereignty over Epirus was threatened by a Turko-Albanian despot, Ali Pasa Tepelenë, who was recognized in 1778 by Turkey as pasha of Ioánnina. His oppressive rule was extended by 1810 to most of the Peloponnese, central Greece, and parts of western Macedonia and was a leading cause of the War of Greek Independence (1821-29).

Much of northern Epirus was united with Greece in 1913, leaving minorities on both sides of the Greek-Albanian frontier. In 1939 Italy annexed all of Albania but in 1940, after attempting to invade Greece, was pushed out of Greek Epirus by the Greek army and lost much of northern Epirus until the German attack on Greece. The German occupation followed (1940-44) until the Allies restored the Greek-Albanian frontier.

Source www.britannica.com

“Speakers of these various Greek dialects settled different parts of Greece at different times during the Middle Bronze Age, with one group, the “northwest” Greeks, developing their own dialect and peopling central Epirus. This was the origin of the Molossian or Epirotic tribes.”

E.N.Borza “In the shadow of Olympus; The emergence of Macedon” (revised edition, 1992), page 62

“We have seen that the “Makedones” or “highlanders” of mountainous western Macedonia may have been derived from northwest Greek stock. That is, northwest Greece provided a pool of Indo-European speakers of proto-Greek from which emerged the tribes who were later known by different names as they established their regional identities in separate parts of the country. Thus the Macedonians may have been related to those peoples who at an earlier time migrated south to become the historical Dorians, and to other Pindus tribes who were the ancestors of the Epirotes or Molossians. If it were known that Macedonian was a proper dialect of Greek, like the dialects spoken by Dorians and Molossians, we would be on much firmer ground in this hypothesis.”

E.N.Borza “In the shadow of Olympus; The emergence of Macedon” (revised edition, 1992), page 78

“When Amyntas became king of the Macedonians sometime during the latter third of the sixth century, he controlled a territory that included the central Macedonian plain and its peripheral foothills, the Pierian coastal plain beneath Mt. Olympus, and perhaps the fertile, mountain-encircled plain of Almopia. To the south lay the Greeks of Thessaly. The western mountains were peopled by the Molossians (the western Greeks of Epirus), tribes of non-Argead Macedonians, and other populations.”

E.N.Borza “In the shadow of Olympus; The emergence of Macedon” (revised edition, 1992), page 98

“As subjects of the king the Upper Macedonians were henceforth on the same footing as the original Macedonians, in that they could qualify for service in the King’s Forces and thereby obtain the elite citizenship. At one bound the territory, the population and wealth of the kingdom were doubled. Moreover since the great majority of the new subjects were speakers of the West Greek dialect, the enlarged army was Greek-speaking throughout.”

NGL Hammond, “Philip of Macedon”, Gerald Duckword & Ltd, London,
1994

“Certainly the Thracians and the Illyrians were non-Greek speakers, but in the northwest, the peoples of Molossis {Epirot province}, Orestis and Lynkestis spoke West Greek. It is also accepted that the Macedonians spoke a dialect of Greek and although they absorbed other groups into their territory, they were essentially Greeks.”

Robert Morkot, “The Penguin Historical Atlas of Ancient Greece”,
Penguin Publ., 1996

“Still, Olympias, a Greek from Epirus married to a king of Macedon”

Paul Catledge “The Greeks: Crucible of Civilization 2000″.Chapter 14, page 213

“Olympias, it seems, though Greek by birth…”

Paul Catledge “The Greeks: Crucible of Civilization 2000″. Chapter 14, page 216

The Molossians were the strongest and, decisive for Macedonia, most easterly of the three most important Epeirot tribes, which, like Macedonia but unlike the Thesprotians and the Chaonians, still retained their monarchy. They were Greeks, spoke a similar dialect to that of Macedonia, suffered just as much from the depredations of the Illyrians and were in principle the natural partners of the Macedonian king who wished to tackle the Illyrian problem at its roots.”

Malcolm Errington, “A History of Macedonia”, California University Press,
1990.

The West Greek dialect group denotes the dialects spoken in: (i) the northwest Greek regions of Epeiros, Akarnania, Pthiotid Akhaia….

Johnathan M. Hall, “Ethnic Identity in Greek Antiquity”, Cambridge University Press, 1997

Alexander was King Philip’s eldest legitimate child. His mother, Olympias,came from the ruling clan of the northwestern Greek region of Epirus.

David Sacks, “A Dictionary of the Ancient Greek World”, Oxford, 1995

Epirus was a land of milk and animal products…The social unit was a small tribe, consisting of several nomadic or semi-nomadic groups, and these tribes, of which more than seventy names are known, coalesced into large tribal coalitions, three in number: Thesprotians, Molossians and Chaonians…We know from the discovery of inscriptions that these tribes were speaking the Greek language (in a West-Greek dialect).

NGL Hammond, “Philip of Macedon”, Duckworth, London, 1994

The molossians were the most powerfull people of Epirus, whose kings had extended their dominion over the whole country. They traced their descent back to Pyrrhus, son of Acchilles..

the Satyres by Juvenal Page 225

That the molossians, who were immediately adjacent to the Dodonaeans in the time of Hecataeus but engulfed them soon afterwards, spoke Illyrian or another barbaric tongue was nowhere suggested, although Aeschylus and Pindar wrote of Molossian lands. That they in fact spoke greek was implied by Herodotus’ inclusion of Molossi among the greek colonists of Asia minor, but became demonstranable only when D. Evangelides published two long inscriptions of the Molossian State, set up p. 369 B.C at Dodona, in Greek and with Greek names, Greek patronymies and Greek tribal names such as Celaethi, Omphales, Tripolitae, Triphylae, etc. As the Molossian cluster of tribes in the time of Hecataeus included the Orestae, Pelagones, Lyncestae, Tymphaei and Elimeotae,as we have argued above, we may be confindent that they too were Greek-speaking;

Inscriptional evidence of the Chaones is lacking until the Hellinistic period; but Ps-Scylax, describing the situation of c. 380-360 put the Southern limit of the Illyrians just north of the Chaones, which indicates that the Chaones did not speak Illyrian, and the acceptance of the Chaones into the Epirote alliance in the 330s suggest strongly that they were Greek-speaking

“The Cambridge Ancient History - The Expansion of the Greek World, Eighth to Sixth Centuries B.C., Part 3: Volume 3″ by P Mack Crew Page 284

however, in central Epirus the only fortified places were in the plain of Ioannina, the centre of the Molossian state. Thus the North-west Greek-speaking tribes were at a half-way stage economically and politically, retaining the vigour of a tribal society and reaching out in a typically Greek manner towards a larger political organization.

“The Cambridge Ancient History: Volume 6, the Fourth Century BC” by D M Lewis, Martin Ostwald, Simon Hornblower, John Boardman

In 322 B.C when Antipater banished banished the anti-Macedonian leaders of the Greek states to live ‘beyond the Ceraunian Mountains’ (plut. Phoc. 29.3) he regarded Epirus as an integral part of the Greek-speaking mainland.

Page 443

The chaones as we will see were a group of Greek-speaking tribes, and the Dexari, or as they were called later the Dassarete, were the most northernly member of the group.

Page 423

Molossi (Μολοσσοί), a people in Epirus, who inhabited a narrow slip of country, called after them Molossia (Μολοσσία) or Molossis, which extended from the Aous, along the western bank of the Arachthus, as far as the Ambracian Gulf. The Molossi were Greek people, who claimed descent from Molossus, the son of Pyrrhus (Neoptolemus) and Andromache, and are said to have emigrated from Thessaly into Epirus, under the guidance of Pyrrhus himself. In their new abodes they intermingled with the original inhabitants of the land and with the neighbouring illyrian tribes of which they were regarded by the other Greeks as half barbarians. They were, however, by far the most powerful people in Epirus, and their kings gradually extended their dominion over the whole of the country. The first of their kings, who took the title of King of Epirus, was Alexander, who perished in Italy B.C. 326. The ancient capital of the Molossi was Pasaron,but Ambracia afterward became their chief town, and the residence of their kings. The Molossian hounds were celebrated in antiquity, and were much prized for hunting.

A New Classical Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography, Mythology and Geography” by William Smith

That they [Dorians] were related to the North-West Dialects (of Phocis, Locris, Aetolia, Acarnania and Epirus) was not perceived clearly by the ancients

History of the Language Sciences: I. Approaches to Gender II. Manifestations
By Sylvain Auroux, page 439

the western greek people (with affinities to the Epirotic tribes) in Orestis, Lyncus, and parts of Pelagonia;

“In the shadow of Olympus..” By Eugene Borza, page 74

09. Dodona, sanctuary of Zeus: stone stele with decree of Molossians before 330? Cabanes (197611) 541 no. 6; SEG xxvi. 699.

[ Gods. When king was Al]exa[ndros when p]rosta[tas of Molos]sians was Ar[istoma]chos Om[phalas, and when] secretary was Me]neda[mos Laru]os, [Molossoi] ga[ve] exe[mption from taxes-------]

D10. Dodona, sanctuary of Zeus: bronze plaque recording an offering by Zakynthians, late 330?
Eggerr(1877) 254 fr; Carapanos (1878) i. 39-40; Franke (1955) 38, suggesting a date soon after 334; Dakans (1964) pl. 4; Hammond (1967) 534; (no reference in Parke 1967); Cabanes (1981) 26, 36 no. 4.

God. Forrune. Zeus, ruler of Dodona, the gift to you i send from me: Agathon son of Echephulos and descent line, proxenoi of Molossians and allies in thirty generations, descent line from Kassandra of Troy. Zakynthians.

D11. Dodona. sanctuary of Zeus: bronze plague, 343 - 331?
Carapanos (1878) i. 32. 5; SGDl 1337; Fraser (1954) 57 n. 13 (attributing to the fourth century and to Alexandros I); Hammond (1967) 536. Restorations are very uncertain. For the word-end restored as ‘allie]s?’ a restoration as [commonal]ty?’ is equally possible.

(When king was Alex[andros, when prostatas of Molossoi was Bakch[- -, and secretary was Sun[- - - of Molossoi and *allies of the Molossoi-------] citizenship

D12. Dodona. sanctuary of Zeus: bronze plague, 343 - 331?
SGDI 1334. Fraser (1954) 57 n. 13 (attributing To the fourth century and to Alexandros I); Hammond (1967) 535-6.

With good fortune. While king was Alexandros, when prostates of Molossoi was Aristoma[ch]os Omphalas and secretary was Menedamos Omphalas, they the commonalty of Molossoi gave equivalence-of -citizenship to Simias of Apollonia, resident in Theptinon, to himself and to descent line and to descent from] descent line

D13. Dodona, sanctuary of Zeus: bronze plaque, 343-331?
Carapanos (1878) L 27. 3; SGDI 1335; Fraser (1954) 57 n. 13 (attributing to the fourth century and to Alexandres I); Hammond (1967) 535—6 (restoring *of the [Molossians)' rather than 'of the [Epeirotai]‘); Cabanes (1976a) 541 no 5.

[While king] was [Al]exandros. when o[f] Molossoi [prostatas] was Aris(to]machos Omphalas. secr]etar{y] was Menedamos [Omphalas. re]solved by t[h]e assembly of the [Molossoi]: Kteson i[s] benefactor, [hence to give] citizenship ro Ktes[on and] descent line.

D14* Duduna, sanctuary of Zeus: limestone stele, 343-331? Cahanes (1976a) 588-9 no 74; SEG xxvi. 700,

[God], Fortune. While king was [Alexandros. when prostatas of Molossoi was Theudotos Koroneiatas. when secretary was Menedamo[s] Larruos, Pheideta son of Inon released Kleanor as free, both remaining and running away wherever he may choose Witnesses: Mega[s] son of Sinon, Amunandros son of Eruxi[s], Dokimos son of Eruxis, Amunandros son of Inon. Nikanor son of Alipon.

DI5- Dodona. sanctuary of Zeus: bronze plaque, c.330?
Carapanos (1878) i. 27. 2; SGDI 1351; Cabanea (1976a) 580 no. 55; Cabanes (1981) 27, 36 no. 5 (assigning a date near to 330).

Released Grupon from slavery the following, by foreigners’ manumission, Theo-dotos, Aleximachos. So[m]utha. Galaithos, Xenus. Witnesses: of Mollossoi [sic] Androkkas Dodonaios. Philipos Dodonaios. Philoxenos Dodonaios, Draipos Dodonaios, Agilaios Dodonaios, Krainus Phoinatos, Amunandros Dodonaios. Of Threspotoi [sic] Dokimos Larisaios, Peiandros Eleaios. Menandros Tiaios, Alex-andros Tiaios. Demon son of Thoxouchares, Philippo[s], Philon Onopernos. When prostatas was Philoxenos Onopern[os. Of Zeus] Naios (and) Diana.

D16 Dodona, sanctuary of Zeus: bronze plaque, late fourth century? Carapanos (1878) L 27. 1; SGDI 1336; Michel. Recueil 317; Franke (1955) 35-6 (construing the phrase ‘the allies of the Apeirotai’ as a partitive genitive and as denoting ‘those within the Epeirote alliance’); Hammond (1967) 550-60 (dating it to 317-312 or 302-297); Cabanes (1976a) 545 no. 1 a; (1981) 28, 37 no. 6.

God. Fortu[ne. To K]leomachos Atintan the allies of the Apeirotai gave within Apeiros tax exemption, when king was Neoptolemos son of Alexandros, when prostatas was Derkas of Molossoi—and full fiscal rights.

Bibliography:

Alternatives to Athens: Varieties of Political Organization and Community in Ancient Greece
By Stephen (EDT) Hodkinson, Roger Brock

“Zeus Archon, Dodonean, Pelasgian, who dwells afar, ruling on rough wintered Dodona, surrounded by the Selloi, the interpreters of your divine will, whose feet are unwashed and sleep on the ground”.

Homer, Iliad 16:127 (Achilles prayer)

XI.

“War was at the same time proclaimed against the Tarentines (who are still a people at the extremity of Italy), because they had offered violence to some Roman ambassadors. These people asked aid against the Romans of Pyrrhus, king of Epirus, who derived his origin from the family of Achilles…

XIII.

“…Thus the ambassador of Pyrrhus returned; and, when Pyrrhus asked him “what kind of a place he had found Rome to be,” Cineas replied, that “he had seen a country of kings, for that all there were such, as Pyrrhus alone was thought to be in Epirus and the rest of Greece.”

Eutropius (Abridgment of Roman History) Historiae Romanae Breviarium

“Arha Ellas apo Oricias kai arhegonos Ellas Epiros“

“Greece starts at Oricus and the most ancient part of Greece is Epirus.”

Claudius Ptolemy, The Geographer

“Peleus is the forefather of the kings of Epiros”

Pausanias, II (Corinth).

Peleus being the son of King Aeacus (the dynasty’s name) and the father of Achilles.

but we know of no Greek before Pyrros who fought against Rome

Pausanias, 1.11

“So Pyrros was the first to cross over against Rome from mainland Greece, and even so he went over only because he was called in by Tarentum”

Pausanias, 1.12

[6] Being apprized of Alcmaeon’s untimely end and courted by Zeus, Callirrhoe requested that the sons she had by Alcmaeon might be full grown in order to avenge their father’s murder. And being suddenly full-grown, the sons went forth to right their father’s wrong. Now Pronous and Agenor, the sons of Phegeus, carrying the necklace and robe to Delphi to dedicate them, turned in at the house of Agapenor at the same time as Amphoterus and Acarnan, the sons of Alcmaeon; and the sons of Alcmaeon killed their father’s murderers, and going to Psophis and entering the palace they slew both Phegeus and his wife. They were pursued as far as Tegea, but saved by the intervention of the Tegeans and some Argives, and the Psophidians took to flight.

[7] Having acquainted their mother with these things, they went to Delphi and dedicated the necklace and robe according to the injunction of Achelous. Then they journeyed to Epirus, collected settlers, and colonized Acarnania..

Apollodorus, 3.76-3.77.

[12] After remaining in Tenedos two days at the advice of Thetis, Neoptolemus set out for the country of the Molossians by land with Helenus, and on the way Phoenix died, and Neoptolemus buried him; and having vanquished the Molossians in battle he reigned as king and begat Molossus on Andromache. And Helenus founded a city in Molossia and inhabited it, and Neoptolemus gave him his mother Deidamia to wife. And when Peleus was expelled from Phthia by the sons of Acastus and died, Neoptolemus succeeded to his father’s kingdom.”

Apollodorus, 6.12

“It was for this reason that Pyrrhus was defeated by the Romans also in a battle to the finish. For it was no mean or untrained army that he had, but the mightiest of those then in existence among the Greeks and one that had fought a great many wars; nor was it a small body of men that was then arrayed under him, but even three times as large as his adversary’s, nor was its general any chance leader, but rather the man whom all admit to have been the greatest of all the generals who flourish at that same period;”

Dionysius of Halicarnnasus, Roman Antiquities, 19.11

“Theopompus says, that there are fourteen Epirotic nations. Of these, the most celebrated are the Chaones and Molotti, because the whole of Epirus was at one time subject, first to Chaones, afterwards to Molotti. Their power was greatly strengthened by the family of their kings being descended from the Æacidæ, and because the ancient and famous oracle of Dodona was in their country. Chaones, Thesproti, and next after these Cassopæi, (who are Thesproti,) occupy the coast, a fertile tract reaching from the Ceraunian mountains to the Ambracian Gulf.”

“The Molotti also were Epirotæ, and were subjects of Pyrrhus Neoptolemus, the son of Achilles, and of his descendants, who were Thessalians. The rest were governed by native princes. Some tribes were continually endeavouring to obtain the mastery over the others, but all were finally subdued by the Macedonians, except a few situated above the Ionian Gulf.”

Strabo, 7.7.1

“Pyrrhus, the king of Epirus, had a particularly high opinion of his powers because he was deemed by foreign nations a match for the Romans; and he believed that it would be opportune to assist the fugitives who had taken refuge with him, especially as they were Greeks, and at the same time so forestall the Romans with some plausible excuse before he should suffer injury at their hands. For so careful was he about his good reputation that though he had long had his eye on Sicily and had been considering how he could overthrow the power of the Romans, he shrank from taking the initiative in hostilities against them, when no wrong had been done him.”

Cassius Dio, Book 9.4
19. When Harrybas, king of the Molossians, was attacked in war by Bardylis, the Illyrian, who commanded a considerably larger army, he dispatched the non-combatant portion of his subjects to the neighbouring district of Aetolia, and spread the report that he was yielding up his towns and possessions to the Aetolians. He himself, with those who could bear arms, placed ambuscades here and there on the mountains and in other inaccessible places. The Illyrians, fearful lest the possessions of the Molossians should be seized by the Aetolians, began to race along in disorder, in their eagerness for plunder. As soon as they became scattered, Harrybas, emerging from his concealment and taking them unawares, routed them and put them to flight.

Frontinus, Strategemata, 13

“Alexander, the Epirote, when waging war against the Illyrians, first placed a force in ambush, and then dressed up some of his own men in Illyrian garb, ordering them to lay waste his own, that is to say, Epirote territory. When the Illyrians saw that this was being done, they themselves began to pillage right and left — the more confidently since they thought that those who led the way were scouts. But when they had been designedly brought by the latter into a disadvantageous position, they were routed and killed.”

Frontinus, Strategemata, On Ambushes, 10

Translation from the Greek Book version into English.

Book III Page 109

The controversial issue, whether Epirotan Ethnes spoke greek has already mentioned previously inside this book. Its obvious that the Greek language was spoken during all Dark age in Dodona and in Nekromanteion. The latter was considred always as one of the Greek manteia (Herod. 1.46.3 where he talks about the “greek manteia” and the meeting of Herod. with the delegates of Periander is described as a normal action (Herod. 5.92)
The Cassiopeians likely spoke greek in that era, because the daughters of Aenieans went to offer worship among them and Molossians, who took part on Ionian immigration were obviously greek speaking, according to Herodotus.
The royal family of Molossis, mainly spoke greek and its members were considered Greeks from Pindarus, Herodotus and Thucydides, but they were not pure. These one way or another are just straws in the wind. The real evidence has came only with the recent discovery of the inscriptions of 370/368 BCE. They are completely in Greek, the names are Greek and the ethnes which are represented to these inscriptions are Molossian and Thesprotian. Greek language and greek names werent adopted suddenly before Peloponessean war. These ethnes were speaking Greek even before the time of Thucydides. We can conclude confidentially that Thucydides put the label “barbarians” onto the ethnes of S. Epirus, without any secondary meaning of non-Greek speakers anyway. They could spoke a more ancient form of Greek language - like the “other Amphilochians” who are too difficult to exist as a carrier of non-greek ethnes between the Greek speaking ethnes of S. Epirus, North Aetolia and Akarnania.

Pyrrhus was king of the Greek tribe of Molossians in Epirus by hereditary right, but for most of his life he struggled with rival claimants in a collateral line. He was related to Olympias, mother of *Alexander the Great, and attempted to equal or rival Alexander as a world conqueror.

At the age of seventeen, while temporarily out of power in Epirus, he joined with *Demetrius I Poliorcetes and was with him at the Battle of Ipsus in 301 and was later placed in command of various Greek holdings by him.

He later transferred his allegiance to *Ptolemy I. When *Cassander died in 297, Pyrrhus was called to aid one of his sons against his brother, as was Demetrius. Demetrius murdered the young man and proclaimed himself king of Macedonia, a position that Pyrrhus also coveted.

In 286 he joined with Lysimachus and Ptolemy to drive Demetrius from Macedonia and agreed to share rule of Macedonia with Lysimachus. He was, however, driven out by Lysimachus in 283 after the death of Demetrius in Asia. While frequently in conflict with Antigonus II Gonatas, son of Demetrius, Pyrrhus was looking for new opportunities and found one in a request for aid from the city of Tarentum in south Italy, which had entered a war with Rome.

Pyrrhus is most famous for his war against the Romans (282-274), in which he won several battles but at great cost in casualties, which he could not easily replace.

On being congratulated by his staff for another victory, he is said to have remarked, “One more such victory and I am finished”—hence the term “Pyrrhic victory.”

He removed most of his forces to Sicily to respond to requests for help, and to seek further conquests, but was ultimately unsuccessful. He returned to Italy briefly and finally withdrew to Epirus in 274.

He acquired another army, mostly Gauls as mercenaries, and invaded Macedonia and temporarily drove Antigonus II Gonatas to the seacoast. But while plundering the countryside, his Gauls desecrated royal tombs at Aegae (modern Verghina) and enraged the local population. It was an opportune time for Pyrrhus to seek yet another opportunity for conquest, this time against Sparta, ostensibly aiding an exiled king. Sparta defended itself vigorously, and aid from Macedonia at the last minute caused Pyrrhus to withdraw. In the meantime, a faction in the city of Argos sought his aid; the other faction sought help from Antigonus.

During fierce fighting in the city, Pyrrhus was hit on the head by a roof tile thrown by an old woman who observed her son in danger from Pyrrhus. While he was stunned, a Macedonian soldier recognized him and attempted (sloppily) to cut off his head; the severed head was presented to Antigonus.

Pyrrhus’ soldiers admired him for his boldness and considerable combat skills, while rivals universally considered him one of the best generals who ever lived.

Bibliography:
N.G.L. Hammond/Walbank, A History of Macedonia, vol. 3, 336-167 B.C., 1996, Greek Edition.

1. ALEXANDROS (Αλέξανδρος) m Ancient Greek (ALEXANDER Latinized)Pronounced: al-eg-ZAN-durFrom the Greek name Alexandros, which meant ‘defending men’ from Greek alexein ‘to defend, protect, help’ and aner ‘man’ (genitive andros). Alexander the Great, King of Macedon, is the most famous bearer of this name. The name was found also in Epirus, Thessaly, Corinth.

2. PYRRHOS (Πύρρος) m Ancient Greek (PYRRHUS Latinized)

Most famous bearers of this name are the Son of Achilles and Dieidameia and also Pyrrhos the Epirotan king, one of the best tacticians in ancient world. The name derives from the greek adj. Pyrrhos (= blond).

3. ALKETAS (Αλκέτας) m Ancient Greek (ALCAEUS Latinized)

Pronounced: al-SEE-usDerived from Greek Αλκη meaning ‘strength’. This was the name of a 7th-century BC lyric poet from the island of Lesbos.

4. ARRYBAS (Αρ[ρ]ύβας) m Ancient Greek

King of the Molossians. He was uncle of Olympias and Alexander of Epirus.It derives from the greek verb ρύομαι (= protect) + βαίνω (= go). Its full meaning is “go to protect”.

5. ALKON (Άλκων) m Ancient Greek

Possibly a king of Molossians. His name exists in the list of the “best of Greeks” attended to the court of the tyrant Cleisthenes of Sicyon in order to contest about his daughter’s hand. His name derives from Άλκη (=strenght)

6. NEOPTOLEMOS (Νεοπτόλεμος) m Ancient Greek

Son of Achilles. Also the same name bore kings of Molossia. Means ‘new war’, derived from Greek neos ‘new’ and polemos ‘war’.
7. ADMETOS (Άδμητος) m Ancient Greek

It was the name of the Molossian king at the time Themistocles fled to the court of Molossians. Derives from the word a+damaw(damazw) and mean tameless,obstreperous.Damazw mean chasten, prevail

8. AEACIDES (Αιακίδης) m Ancient Greek

King of Epirus, father of Pyrrhos. His name means the descedant of Aeacos.

9. POLYXENA (Πολυξένη) f ancient Greek

The original name of Olympias, mother of Alexander the great, as a child. (W. Heckel) It derives from the greek adj. Πολύξενος (= very hospitable).

10. OLYMPIAS (Oλυμπιάδα) f Ancient Greek

Mother of Alexander the Great. She took this name after her husband’s success in Olympic games. It means “the one related with Olympus/Olympics”

11. ANDROCLES (Ανδροκλής) m Ancient Greek

One of the two Molossians who saved the infant Pyrrhos. It derives from the greek noun “ανήρ” (= man (genitive andros)) + Kleos (glory).

12. ARISTOMACHOS (Aριστόμαχος) m Ancient Greek

Aristomachos was from Omfalos. His name was found in a inscription of Dodona in 343-331a. (SGDI II 1334 — Cabanes, L’Épire (1976) 540,4)Derived from the Greek adj aristos (=best) + Mache (=war). Its full meaning is “best on war”.

13. MENEDAMOS (Μενέδαμος) m Ancient Greek

Menedamos was from Omfalos.His name was found in a inscription of Dodona in 343-331a. (SGDI II 1334 — Cabanes, L’Épire (1976) 540,4). His name derives from from Greek meno (=to last, to withstand) + damos (doric of demos “people”) Its full meaning is “the one who withstands people”

14. AMYNANDROS (Αμύνανδρος) m Ancient Greek

Amynandros was son of Eryxis. His name was found on Molossian decrees. It derives from the greek verb αμύνω (=defend) + aner (=‘man’ (genitive andros)). Its full meaning is ” to defend men”

15. DOKIMOS (Δόκιμος) m Ancient Greek

Ηε was son of Eryxis αnd brother of Amynandros. His name was found on Molossian decrees. It derives from greek adj. Δόκιμος (=superb)

16. TROAS(Τρωάς) f ancient Greek

Sister of Olympias and wife of her uncle Arrybas. Her name means “The one from Troy”. According to the legend the Molossian royal house had an ancestry also from Troy.

17. AGATHON (Αγάθων) M Ancient Greek

Agathon was son of Echephylos. His name is found on the Molossian decrees.His name derives from greek noun “αγαθά”(=wealth) meaning the “one who has wealth”.

18. BEROE (Bερώη) f Ancient Greek

Daughter of king Arrybas and wife of the Illyrian king Glaukos. She brought up Pyrrhos when he was a child. Her name derives from the greek verb “φέρω” (=bring ie in north-west greek dialect f becomes b)

19. MEGAS (Mέγας) m Ancient Greek

Megas was an Epirotan, son of Sinon. His name was found on the Molossian decrees. His name derives from the greek adj “μέγας” (=great).

20. PHILOXENOS (Φιλόξενος) m Ancient Greek

He was an Epirotan from Dodone. His name was found on the Molossian decrees. Meaning ‘friend of strangers’ derived from Greek philos meaning friend and xenos meaning ‘stranger, foreigner’.

21. KLEOMACHOS (Κλεόμαχος) m Ancient Greek

Kleomachos was an Atintanian. His name was found on the molossian decrees. It derives from Greek kleos (=glory) + Mache (=war)

22. EUALKOS (Eύαλκος) m Ancient Greek

He was a Molossian. His name was found on c. 232-168a. ( Epigrafia romana in area Adriatica (1998) 29, 1 ) It derives from greek adj Ευαλκής (=strong, powerful)

23. LYKIDAS (Λυκίδας) m Ancient Greek

He was a chaonian. His name was found on c. 232-168a. ( Epigrafia romana in area Adriatica (1998) 29, 1). It derives from Λύκη (=bright) + the greek ending -das. It means “the bright”.

24. AISCHRION (Αισχρίων) m Ancient Greek

His name was found in an inscription of Dodona (c. 300a. — JHS 74 (1954) 56-58) It derives from the greek adj. Αισχρός (=shameful). + greek ending -ion. it means the descedant of Aischros.

25. HELLINOS (Ελληνος) m Ancient Greek

A Chaonian, father of Lykidas and His name was found on c. 232-168a. ( Epigrafia romana in area Adriatica (1998) 29, 1). His name derives from Hellene (=Greek).

26. AGESANDROS (Αγήσανδρος) m Ancient Greek

Son of Lamiskos from Bouthrotion, (Epeiros — Bouthrotos (Butrint) — c. 232-168a. — Epigrafia romana in area Adriatica (1998) 29, 1 )His name derives from the greek verb Άγω (=lead) + Ανδρός (= men, dotic of aner). Its full meaning is “the one who leads men”.

27. APOLLODOROS m Ancient Greek

Means ‘gift of Apollo’ from the name of the god Apollo combined with Greek doron ‘gift’. The patronymic of an epirotan found on Bouthrotos (Epeiros — Bouthrotos (Butrint) — c. 232-168a. — Epigrafia romana in area Adriatica (1998) 29, 1)

28.NIKANOR (Nικάνωρ) m ancient Greek

It means “victor” - from Nike (Νικη) meaning “victory”.Nicanor was a common name in Epirus as it was found on many inscriptions.(Epigr. tou Oropou 136 c. 240-180a )

29. ARCHEDAMOS (Αρχέδαμος) m ancient Greek

Arcedamos was an epirotan from Bouthrotos. (Bouthrotos (Butrint) — c. 232-168a. — Epigrafia romana in area Adriatica (1998) 29, 1 ) His name derive from greek verb Άρχω (=head or be in command) + Δαμός (= people, doric of demos).

30.ANTIGONE f ancient Greek

Usage: Greek Mythology Pronounced: an-TIG-o-neeMeans ‘against birth’ from Greek anti ‘against’ and gone ‘birth’. In Greek legend Antigone was the daughter of Oedipus and Jocasta. She was the name of a Molossian woman. (IG II² 9972 Attica )

31. HEKATAIOS m Ancient Greek

He was a Molossian. (Amyzon 59 Fragment of list of stephanephoroi, including [Chion]is Chionidos, on block of white marble; II2/I; found at Amyzon: Robert, Amyzon no. 52 (PH); BE 1984:429. ) It means the “one who belongs to the goddess Hecate)

32. KALLIPHON (Καλλιφών) m Ancient Greek

Kalliphon was a Molossian and his name was found in an inscription. (Magnesia 49 Decree of boule and demos of Paros accepting invitation of Magnesia Mai. to Leukophryena) It derives from Kallos (=beauty) + φωνή (=voice). It means the “one who has beautiful voice”

33. LEON (Λέων) m Ancient Greek

Α Molossian. His name was found in an inscription (Olymos 57 Caria). It derives from ‘Leon’ = ‘lion’

34. ARTEMIDOROS (Αρτεμίδωρος) m Ancient Greek

He was a Molossian. (Aphrodisias 32 Caria)His name derives from the name Artemis and δώρο (=gift). Its full meaning is “gift from Artemis”.

35. DIODOROS (Διόδωρος) m Ancient Greek

He was a Molossian. (Aphrodisias 306 Caria) His name derives from the name Διας and δώρο (=gift). Its full meaning is “gift from Dias/Zeus”.

36. ANTIPATROS (Αντίπατρος) m Ancient Greek (ANTIPATER Latinized)

Pronounced: an-TI-pa-turFrom the Greek name Antipatros, which meant ‘like the father’ from Greek anti ‘like’ and pater ‘father’. This was the name of an Epirote found in an inscription. (ID 298 Delos — 240 a)

37. ASKLΑPIOS (Ασκληπιός) m Ancient Greek

He was a Chaonian and son of Andronikos (Bouthrotos (Butrint) — c. 220-170/160a.) His name is taken from the god Asklepios.

38. ARISTOKLEIA (Αριστόκλεια) f ancient Greek

She was daughter of Aristoteles. (IG II² 8532 attica )Derived from the Greek elements aristos ‘best’ and kleos ‘glory’.

39. ARISTOTELES (Αριστοτέλης) m Ancient Greek (ARISTOTLE Latinized)

Pronounced: AR-is-taw-tulFrom the Greek name Aristoteles which meant ‘the best purpose’, derived from aristos ‘best’ and telos ‘purpose, aim’. This was the name also of an important Greek philosopher who made contributions to logic, metaphysics, ethics and biology among many other fields.

40. KALLIAS (Καλλίας) m Ancient Greek

An Epirotan.(IG II² 8546 Attica) His name derives from the greek adj. Kallias (=peaceful)

41. PHILIPPOS (Φίλιππος) m Ancient Greek (PHILIP Latinized)

Pronounced: FIL-ipFrom the Greek name Philippos which means ‘friend of horses’, composed of the elements philos ‘friend’ and hippos ‘horse’. The name was borne by five kings of Macedon, including Philip II the father of Alexander the Great and also by Thessalians and Epirotans (IG XI,4 635 Delos — med III a)

42. BERENIKE (Βερενίκη) f Ancient Greek (BERENICE Latinized)

Pronounced: ber-e-NIE-seeMeans ‘bringing victory’ from pherein ‘to bring’ and nike ‘victory’. This name was common among the Ptolemy ruling family of Egypt as well into Epirus and Macedonia. (Agora 17 456 Attica)

43. FILON (Φιλων) m Ancient Greek

An Epirotan. (IG XII,8 594 Thasos) His name derives from Filos (=friend)

44. ARISTOKLES (Αριστοκλής) m Ancient Greek

A Molossian, son of Artemidoros. (Aphrodisias 32 Caria) His name derives from Ariston (=best) + Kleos (=glory).

45. STRATONIKE (Στρατονίκη) f Ancient Greek (STRATONICE Latinized)

Means ‘victorious army’ from stratos ‘army’ and nike ‘victory’. According to W. Heckel, one of the names of Olympias.

46. GLAUKOS (Γλαύκος) m Ancient Greek

An Epirotan. (IG II² 8533 Attica) It derives from the greek adj. “Γλαυκός” (= brilliant).

47. FALAKRION (Φαλακρίων) m Ancient Greek

He was a Thesprotian. (IG IV²,1 99,II Epidauria). It derives from the greek noun “Falakros” and has the meaning of “bald”. Its full meaning is “the descendant of Falakros.

48. ANTIOCHOS (Αντίοχος) m Ancient Greek

An Epirotan, son of Nikanor. (I.Kourion 60 Kypros — Kourion — c. 250a.)

49. DEINON (Δείνων) m Ancient Greek

An Epirotan. (IG XI,4 635 Delos — med III a). His name derives from ‘deinow’ = ‘to make terrible’.

50. EYTYCHIS (Ευτυχίς) f Ancient Greek

Epirotan woman, daughter of Neoptolemos (IG II² 8535 Attica)Her namer derives from the greek noun Ευτυχία (=Happiness)

51. LEONTIS (Λεωντίς) f Ancient Greek

Epirotan, daughter of Nikados (IG II² 8539 Attica). It derives from Greek noun Leon (=Lion)

52. NIKADOS (Νίκαδος) m Ancient Greek

An epirotan. (IG II² 8539 Attica). It means “the descedant of Nikon”.

53. PATROKLOS (Πάτροκλος) m Ancient Greek

An Epirotan. (Epigr. tou Oropou 586) A Mythological name. It derives from the greek πάτηρ (=father) + kleos (=glory).

54. FANIAS (Φανίας) m Ancient Greek

A Molossian. (Aphrodisias 306 Caria) One of the most common Greek names, specially found in Athens.

55. RODIOS (Ρόδιος) m Ancient Greek

An Epirotan, son of Rodippos. (IG II² 8544 Attica). It derives from the noun ρόδη(=rose)

56. LYSIAS (Λυσίας) m Ancient GreekAn Epirotan. (IG XII,Suppl 631 Euboia — Eretria — IIIa.) It derives from the greek adj. Lysios (=the one who liberates)

57. RODIPPOS (Ρόδιππος) m Ancient Greek

An Epirotan (IG II² 8544 Attica). It derives from the It derives from the adj ρόδης(=too handsome) + ίππος (=horse). Its full meaning is “too beautiful horse”

58. FILOTEIA (Φιλωτεία) f ancient Greek

An Epirotan woman. (SEG 46:791 Poteidaia-Kassandreia) Her name derives from filos (=friendly) + ending -teia. Its full meaning is “Too friendly”

59. STEPHANOS (Στέφανος) m ancient Greek

An Epirotan. (IG II² 8545 attica). His name derives from greek noun στέφανος (= wreath)

60. GLAUKETAS (Γλαυκέτας) m ancient Greek

An Epirotan. (IG II² 8534 Attica) It derives from the greek adj. “Γλαυκός” (= brilliant) + ending -etas.

61. PARMENISKOS (Παρμενίσκος) m ancient Greek

An Epirotan, son of Alexandros (Thess. Mnemeia 232,46). It means “the little Parmenon”

62. ZOPYROS (Ζώπυρος) m ancient Greek

A Molossian. (Olymos 54 Caria) It derives from the greek adj. Zopyros (=the one who is inflamed)

63. DAIPPOS (Δάιππος) m ancient Greek

An Epirotan proxenos of the Oropos city, son of Nikanor (Epigr. tou Oropou 136 c. 240-180a) It derives from the greek adj. δάιος (=frightful) + ϊππος (=horse). Its full meaning is “frightful horse”.

64. DEINOMENES (Δεινομένης) m ancient Greek

A Molossian. (Lindos II 2 99a.) It derives from the greek adj. Δεινός (=wild) + μένος (= power).

65. ALKEMACHOS (Αλκήμαχος) m ancient Greek

An Epirotan, son of Haropos. He won in diaulon in Panhellenic games. (IG II² 2313 Attica 194/3) It derives from Alke (=strenght) + Mache (=war)

66. SAMIPPOS (Σάμιππος) m ancient Greek

A Molossian (Att. — Athens: Akr. — med s IV a IG II² 3827) It derives from the greek adj. Σαμός (= tall) + ίππος (=horse), meaning “tall horse”.

67. ANTANOR (Αντάνωρ) m ancient Greek

A Chaonian Proxenos, son of Euthumides. (FD III 4:409 Delphi 325-275 bc — SIG(3) 379) It derives from the greek preposition anti (=equal to) + Aner (=man). It means “equal to man”

68. EFTHIMIDES (Ευθυμίδης) m ancient Greek

A Chaonian proxenos. (FD III 4:409 Delphi proxenia Chaonian 325-275 bc — SIG(3) 379) It derives from the greek adj. Εύθυμος (=cheerful) + the greek ending -ides.

69. NIKOLAOS (Νικόλαος) m ancient Greek

An Epirotan tragodos. (IG XI,2 108 Delos — 279 bc) It derives from νικώ (=win) + λαός (=people). It means the “winner of people”

70. KALLIKRATES (Καλλικράτης) m ancient Greek

A Molossian (Aphrodisias 24 Caria). It derives from κάλλος (=nice, beauty, good) + κρατος (=law, rule). It means the “one who has good rule”.

“Zeus Archon, Dodonean, Pelasgian, who dwells afar, ruling on rough wintered Dodona, surrounded by the Selloi, the interpreters of your divine will, whose feet are unwashed and sleep on the ground”.

Homer, Iliad 16:127 (Achilles prayer)

XI.

“War was at the same time proclaimed against the Tarentines (who are still a people at the extremity of Italy), because they had offered violence to some Roman ambassadors. These people asked aid against the Romans of Pyrrhus, king of Epirus, who derived his origin from the family of Achilles…

XIII.

“…Thus the ambassador of Pyrrhus returned; and, when Pyrrhus asked him “what kind of a place he had found Rome to be,” Cineas replied, that “he had seen a country of kings, for that all there were such, as Pyrrhus alone was thought to be in Epirus and the rest of Greece.”

Eutropius (Abridgment of Roman History) Historiae Romanae Breviarium

“Arha Ellas apo Oricias kai arhegonos Ellas Epiros“

“Greece starts at Oricus and the most ancient part of Greece is Epirus.”

Claudius Ptolemy, The Geographer

“Peleus is the forefather of the kings of Epiros”

Pausanias, II (Corinth).

Peleus being the son of King Aeacus (the dynasty’s name) and the father of Achilles.

but we know of no Greek before Pyrros who fought against Rome

Pausanias, 1.11

“So Pyrros was the first to cross over against Rome from mainland Greece, and even so he went over only because he was called in by Tarentum”

Pausanias, 1.12

[6] Being apprized of Alcmaeon’s untimely end and courted by Zeus, Callirrhoe requested that the sons she had by Alcmaeon might be full grown in order to avenge their father’s murder. And being suddenly full-grown, the sons went forth to right their father’s wrong. Now Pronous and Agenor, the sons of Phegeus, carrying the necklace and robe to Delphi to dedicate them, turned in at the house of Agapenor at the same time as Amphoterus and Acarnan, the sons of Alcmaeon; and the sons of Alcmaeon killed their father’s murderers, and going to Psophis and entering the palace they slew both Phegeus and his wife. They were pursued as far as Tegea, but saved by the intervention of the Tegeans and some Argives, and the Psophidians took to flight.

[7] Having acquainted their mother with these things, they went to Delphi and dedicated the necklace and robe according to the injunction of Achelous. Then they journeyed to Epirus, collected settlers, and colonized Acarnania..

Apollodorus, 3.76-3.77.

[12] After remaining in Tenedos two days at the advice of Thetis, Neoptolemus set out for the country of the Molossians by land with Helenus, and on the way Phoenix died, and Neoptolemus buried him; and having vanquished the Molossians in battle he reigned as king and begat Molossus on Andromache. And Helenus founded a city in Molossia and inhabited it, and Neoptolemus gave him his mother Deidamia to wife. And when Peleus was expelled from Phthia by the sons of Acastus and died, Neoptolemus succeeded to his father’s kingdom.”

Apollodorus, 6.12

“It was for this reason that Pyrrhus was defeated by the Romans also in a battle to the finish. For it was no mean or untrained army that he had, but the mightiest of those then in existence among the Greeks and one that had fought a great many wars; nor was it a small body of men that was then arrayed under him, but even three times as large as his adversary’s, nor was its general any chance leader, but rather the man whom all admit to have been the greatest of all the generals who flourish at that same period;”

Dionysius of Halicarnnasus, Roman Antiquities, 19.11

“Theopompus says, that there are fourteen Epirotic nations. Of these, the most celebrated are the Chaones and Molotti, because the whole of Epirus was at one time subject, first to Chaones, afterwards to Molotti. Their power was greatly strengthened by the family of their kings being descended from the Æacidæ, and because the ancient and famous oracle of Dodona was in their country. Chaones, Thesproti, and next after these Cassopæi, (who are Thesproti,) occupy the coast, a fertile tract reaching from the Ceraunian mountains to the Ambracian Gulf.”

“The Molotti also were Epirotæ, and were subjects of Pyrrhus Neoptolemus, the son of Achilles, and of his descendants, who were Thessalians. The rest were governed by native princes. Some tribes were continually endeavouring to obtain the mastery over the others, but all were finally subdued by the Macedonians, except a few situated above the Ionian Gulf.”

Strabo, 7.7.1

“Pyrrhus, the king of Epirus, had a particularly high opinion of his powers because he was deemed by foreign nations a match for the Romans; and he believed that it would be opportune to assist the fugitives who had taken refuge with him, especially as they were Greeks, and at the same time so forestall the Romans with some plausible excuse before he should suffer injury at their hands. For so careful was he about his good reputation that though he had long had his eye on Sicily and had been considering how he could overthrow the power of the Romans, he shrank from taking the initiative in hostilities against them, when no wrong had been done him.”

Cassius Dio, Book 9.4

19. When Harrybas, king of the Molossians, was attacked in war by Bardylis, the Illyrian, who commanded a considerably larger army, he dispatched the non-combatant portion of his subjects to the neighbouring district of Aetolia, and spread the report that he was yielding up his towns and possessions to the Aetolians. He himself, with those who could bear arms, placed ambuscades here and there on the mountains and in other inaccessible places. The Illyrians, fearful lest the possessions of the Molossians should be seized by the Aetolians, began to race along in disorder, in their eagerness for plunder. As soon as they became scattered, Harrybas, emerging from his concealment and taking them unawares, routed them and put them to flight.

Frontinus, Strategemata, 13

“Alexander, the Epirote, when waging war against the Illyrians, first placed a force in ambush, and then dressed up some of his own men in Illyrian garb, ordering them to lay waste his own, that is to say, Epirote territory. When the Illyrians saw that this was being done, they themselves began to pillage right and left — the more confidently since they thought that those who led the way were scouts. But when they had been designedly brought by the latter into a disadvantageous position, they were routed and killed.”

Frontinus, Strategemata, On Ambushes, 10

http://historyofepirus.wordpress.com/2006/12/31/ancient-writers-about-epirus/